HISTORY OF THE

INDUCTIVE SCIENCES,


FROM

THE EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME.





BY

WILLIAM WHEWELL, D. D.,

Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.



THE THIRD  EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS

IN TWO VOLUMES.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY


1858


This electronic edition prepared by Dr. David C. Bossard
from original documents in the library holdings of Dartmouth College.

February, 2006.

Copyright © 2006 by Dr. David C. Bossard.  All rights reserved.



CONTENTS.


SUPERSCRIPTION  022

THE SECONDARY MECHANICAL SCIENCES.


BOOK VIII.

HISTORY OF ACOUSTICS.

 023  024  025  026  027  028  029  030  031  032  033  034  035  036  037  038  039  040  041  042  043  044  045  046  047  048  049  050

INTRODUCTION  23

CHAPTER I.  PRELUDE TO THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS IN ACOUSTICS  24

CHAPTER II.  PROBLEM OF THE VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS  28

CHAPTER III.  PROBLEM OF THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND  32

CHAPTER IV.  PROBLEM OF DIFFERENT SOUNDS OF THE SAME STRING  36

CHAPTER V.  PROBLEM OF THE SOUNDS OF PIPES  38

CHAPTER VI.  PROBLEM OF DIFFERENT MODES OF VIBRATION OF BODIES IN GENERAL  41


BOOK IX.

HISTORY OF OPTICS, FORMAL AND PHYSICAL


INTRODUCTION  51  
051  052

FORMAL OPTICS.

 053  054  055  056  057  058  059  060  061  062  063  064  065  066  067  068  069  070  071  072  073  074  075  076  077  078  079  080  081  082  083  084

CHAPTER 1.  PRIMARY INDUCTION OF OPTICS. --
RAYS OF LIGHT AND LAWS OF REFLECTION  53

CHAPTER II.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAW OF REFRACTION 54

CHAPTER III.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAW OF DISPERSION BY REFRACTION  58

CHAPTER IV.  DISCOVERY OF ACHROATISM  66

CHAPTER V.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF DOUBLE REFRACTION  69

CHAPTER VI.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF POLARIZATION. 72

CHAPTER VII.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF THE COLORS O' THIN PLATES  76

CHAPTER VIII.  ATTEMPTS TO DISCOVER THE LAWS OF OTHER PHENOMENA  78

CHAPTER IX.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF PHENOMENA OF DIPOLARIZED LIGHT  80

PHYSICAL OPTICS.

CHAPTER X.  PRELUDE TO THE EPOCH OF YOUNG AND FRESNEL  85

 085  086  087  088  089  090  091

CHAPTER XI. EPOCH OF YOUNG AND FRESNEL.

 092  093  094  095  096  097  098  099  100  101  102  103  104  105  106  107  108  109  110

Sect. 1. Introduction  92

Sect. 2. Explanation of the Periodical Colors of Thin Plates and Shadows by the Undulatory Theory  98
Sect. 3. Explanation of Double Refraction by the Undulatory Theory  100
Sect. 4. Explanation of Polarization by the Undulatory Theory  100
Sect, 5. Explanation of Dipolarization by the Undulatory Theory  105

CHAPTER XII.  SEQUEL TO THE EPOCH OF YOUNG AND FRESNEL -- RECEFTION OF THE UNDULATORY THEORY  111

 111  112  113  114  115  116  117

CHAPTER XIII.  CONFIRMATION AND EXTENSION OF THE UNDULATORY THEORY  118

 118  119  120  121  122  123  124  125  126  127  128  129  130  131  132  133  134  135  136

1. Double Refraction of Compressed Glass  119

2. Circular Polarization  119
3. Elliptical Polarization in Quartz  122
4. Differential Equations of Elliptical Polarization  122
5. Elliptical Polarization of Metals  123
6. Newton's Rings by Polarized Light  124
7. Conical Refraction  124
8. Fringes ofShadows  125
9. Objections to the Theory  125
10. Dispersion, on the Undulatory Theory 126
11. Conclusion  128

BOOK X.

HISTORY OF THERMOTICS. AND ATMOLOGY.


INTRODUCTION  137  
137  138

THERMOTICS PROPER.

CHAPTER I.  THE DOCTRINES OF CONDUCTION AND RADIATION.

 139  140  141  142  143  144  145  146  147  148  149  150  151  152  153  154  155  156

Sect. 1. Introduction of the Doctrine of Conduction  139
Sect. 2. "  "  Radiation  142
Sect. 3. Verification of the Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation  143
Sect. 4. The Geological and Cosmological Application of Thermotics  144
1. Effect of Solar Heat on the Earth  145
2. Climate  146
3. Temperature of the Interior of the Earth  147
4. Heat of the Planetary Spaces 148
Sect. 5. Correction of Newtbn's Law of Cooling  149
Sect. 6. Other Laws of Phenomena with respect to Radiation  151
Sect. 7. Fourier's Theory of Radiant Heat  152
Sect. 8. Discovery of the Polarization of Heat  153


CHAPTER II.  THE LAWS OF CHANGES OCCASIONED BY HEAT.

 157  158  159  160  161  162

Sect. 1. Expansion by Heat. -- The Law of Dalton and Gay-Lussac for Gases  157

Sect. 2. Specific Heat. -- Change of Consistence  159
Sect. 3. The Doctrine of Latent Heat  160

ATMOLOGY.

CHAPTER III.  THE RELATION OF VAPOR AND AIR.

 163  164  165  166  167  168  169  170  171  172  173  174  175  176  177  178  179  180

Sect. 1. The Boylean Law of the Air's Elasticity  163

Sect. 2. Prelude to Dalton's Doctrine of Evaporation  165
Sect. 3. Dalton's Doctrine of Evaporation  170
Sect. 4. Determination of the Laws of the Elastic Force of Steam  172
Sect. 5. Consequences of the Doctrine of Evaporation. -- Explanation of Rain, Dew, and Clouds  176

CHAPTER IV.  PHYSICAL THEORIES OF HEAT.

 181  182  183  184  185  186  187  188  189  190

Thermotical Theories  181

Atmological Theories  184
Conclusion  187




THE MECHANICO-CHEMICAL SCIENCES.

BOOK XI.

HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY.

INTRODUCTION  191  
191  192

CHAPTER I.  DISCOVERY OF LAWS OF ELECTRIC PHENOMENA  193

 193  194  195  196  197  198  199  200

CHAPTER II.  THE PROGRESS OF ELECTRICAI. THEORY  201

 201  202  203  204  205  206  207  208  209  210  211  212  213  214  215  216

Question of One or Two Fluids  210

Question of the Material Reality of the Electric Fluid  212


BOOK XII.

HISTORY OF MAGNETISM.


CHAPTER 1.  DISCOVERY OF LAWS OF MAGNETIC PHENOMENA 217

 217  218  219

CHAPTER II.  PROGRESS OF MAGNETIC THEORY

 220  221  222  223  224  225  226  227  228  229  230  231  232  233  234  235  236

Theory of Magnetic Action  220

Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism  224
Conclusion  232

BOOK XIII.

HISTORY OF GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

CHAPTER I.  DISCOVERY OF VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY  237

 237  238  239

CHAPTER II.  RECEPTION AND CONFIRMATION OF THE DISCOVERT OF VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY  240  
240  241

CHAPTER III.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF THE MUTUAL ATTRACTION AND REPULSION OF VOLTAIC CURRENTS. -- AMPÈRE  242  
242

CHAPTER IV.  DISCOVERY OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ACTION. -- OERSTED  243  
243  244

CHAPTER V.  DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ACTION  245 
245

CHAPTER VI.  THEORY OF ELECTRODYNAMICAL ACTION. 
246  247  248  249

Ampère's Theory  246
Reception of Ampere's Theory  249

CHAPTER VII.  CONSEQUENCES OF THE ELECTRODYNAMIC THEORY  250  
250  251  252

Discovery of Diamagnetism  252

CHAPTER VII.  DISOOVERY OF THE LAWS OF MAGNETO-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.  FARADAY  253  
253  254  255

CHAPTER IX.  TRANSITION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE  256
  256  257   258  259  260




THE ANALYTICAL SCIENCE.

BOOK XIV.

HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY.

CHAPTER I.  IMPROVEMENT OF THE NOTION OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, AND RECOGNITION OF IT AS THE SPAGIRIC ART  261
261

CHAPTER II.  DOCTRINE OF ACID AND ALKALI. -- SYLVIUS 262
262  263  264

CHAPTER III.  DOCTRINE OF ELECTIVE ATTRACTIONS. -- GEOFFROY. BERGMAN  265 
265  266

CHAPTER IV.  DOCTRINE OF ACIDIFICATION AND COMBUSTION. -- PHLOGISTIC THEORY.  
267  268  269  270  271

Publication of the Theory by Beccher and Stahl  267
Reception and Application of the Theory 271

CHAPTER V. CHEMISTRY OF GASES. -- BLACK. CAVENDISH.  272 
272  273  274

CHAPTER VI.  EPOCH OF THE THEORY OF OXYGEN. -- LAVOISIER. 
275  276  277  278  279  280  281

Sect. 1. Prelude to the Theory. -- Its Publication  275
Sect. 2. Reception and Confirmation of the Theory of Oxygen  278
Sect. 3. Nomenclature of the Oxygen Theory  281

CHAPTER VII.  APPLICATION AND CORRECTION OF THE OXYGEN THEORY  282 
282  283  284

CHAPTER VIII.  THE0RY OP DEFINITE, RECIPROCAL, AND MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS.

 285  286  287  288  289  290

Sect. 1. Prelude to the Atomic Theory, and its Publication by Dalton  285

Sect. 2. Reception and Confirmation of the Atomic Theory  288
Sect. 3. The Theory of Volumes. -- Gay-Lussac  290

CHAPTER IX.  EPOCH OF DAVY AND FARADAY.

 291  292  293  294  295  296  297  298  299  300  301  302  303  304

Sect, 1. Promulgation of the Electro-chemical Theory by Davy  291

Sect. 2. Establishment of the Electro-chemical Theory by Faraday  296
Sect. 3. Consequences of Faraday's Discoveries 302
Sect. 4. Reception of the Electro-chemical Theory  303

CHAPTER X.  TRANSITION FROM THE CHEMICAL TO THE CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES  305

 305  306  307  308  309  310  311  312




THE ANALYTICO-CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCE.

BOOK XV.

HISTORY OF MINERALOGY.

INTRODUCTION

 313  314  315

Sect. 1. Of the Classificatory Sciences  313

Sect. 2. Of Mineralogy as the Analytico-classificatory Science 314

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER 1.  PRELUDE TO THE EPOCH OF DE LISLE AND HAÜY  316 
316  317  318  319

CHAPTER II.  EPOCH OF ROME DE LISLE AND
HAÜY -- ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FIXITY OF CRYSTALLINE ANGLES, AND THE SIMPLICITY OF THE LAWS OF DERIVATION  320  320  321  322  323

CHAPTER III.  RECEPTION AND CORRECTIONS OF THE HAUÏAN CRYSTALLOGRAPHY  324 
324  325

CHAPTER IV.  ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DISTINCTION OF SYSTEMS OF CRYSTALLIZATION.  WEISS AND MOHS  326 
326  327  328  329

CHAPTER V.  RECEPTION AND CONFIRMATION OF THE DISTINCTION OF SYSTEMS OF CRYSTALLIZATION.  
330  331  332  333

Diffusion of the Distinction of Systems  330
Confirmation of the Distinction of Systems by the Optical Properties of Minerals -- Brewster  331

CHAPTER VI.  CORRECTION OF THE LAW OF THE SAME ANGLE FOR THE SAME SUBSTANCE.  
334  335

Discovery of Isomorphism. -- Mitscherlich  334
Dimorphism  336

CHAPTER VII.  ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH THE FIXITY OF OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. -- WERNER  336  
336  337  338


SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY.


CHAPTER VIII.  ATTEMPTS AT THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.

 339  340  341  342  343

Sect. 1. Proper Object of Classification  339

Sect. 2. Mixed Systems of Classification  340

CHAPTER IX.  ATTEMPTS AT THE REFORM OF MINERALOGICAL SYSTEMS. -- SEPARATION OF THE CHEMICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY METHODS.

 344  345  346  347  348  349  350  351  352  353  354  355  356

Sect. 1. Natural History System of Mohs  344

Sect. 2. Chemical System of Berzelius and others 347
Sect. 3. Failure of the Attempts at Systematic Reform  349
Sect. 4. Return to Mixed Systems with Improvements  351,


CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES.

BOOK XVI.

HISTORY OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION 357 
357

CHAPTER I.  IMAGINARY KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS  358 
358  359  360

CHAPTER II.  UNSYSTEMATIC KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS  361  
361  362  363  364  365  366  367  368

CHAPTER III.  FORMATION OF A SYSTEM OF ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS.

 369  370  371  372  373  374  375  376  377  378  379  380  381  382  383  384  385  386

Sect. 1. Prelude to the Epoch of Caesalpinus  369

Sect. 2. Epoch of Caesalpinus. -- Formation of a System of Arrangement 373
Sect. 3. Stationary Interval  378
Sect. 4. Sequel to the Epoch of Caesalpinus. -- Further Formation and Adoption of Systematic Arrangement  382

CHAPTER IV.-THE REFORM OF LINNAEUS.

 387  388  389  390  391  392  393  394  395  396  397  398  399  400  401  402  403

Sect. 1. Introduction of the Reform  387

Sect. 2. Linnaean Reform of Botanical Terminology  389
Sect. 3. " " Nomenclature  391
Sect. 4. Linnaeus's Artificial System  395
Sect. 5. Linnaeus's Views on a Natural Method  396
Sect. 6. Reception and Diffusion of the Linnaean Reform  400

CHAPTER V.  PROGRESS TOWARDS A NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY  404

 404  405  406  407  408  409  410  411

CHAPTER VI.  THE PROGRESS OF SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY  412

 412  413  414  415  416  417  418

CHAPTER VII.  THE PROGRESS OF ICHTHYOLOGY  419

 419  420  421  422  423  424  425  426  427  428  429  430  431  432  433  434

Period of Unsystematic Knowledge  420

Period of Erudition  421
Period of Accumulation of Materials. -- Exotic Collections  422
Epoch of the Fixation of Characters. -- Ray and Willoughby 422
Improvement of the System. -- Artedi  423
Separation of the Artificial and Natural Methods in Ichthyology  426



ORGANICAL SCIENCES.

BOOK XVII.

HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

INTRODUCTION  435  
435  436  437

CHAPTER 1.-DISCOVERY OF THE ORGANS OF VOLUNTARY MOTION.

 438  439  440  441  442  443

Sect. 1. Knowledge of Galen and his Predecessors  438

Sect. 2. Recognition of Final Causes in Physiology. -- Galen  442

CHAPTER II.  DISCOVERY OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.

 444  445  446  447  448  449  450  451

Sect. 1. Prelude to the Discovery  444

Sect. 2. The Discovery of the Circulation made by Harvey 447
Sect. 3. Reception of the Discovery  448
Sect. 4. Bearing of the Discovery on the Progress of Physiology  449

CHAPTER III.  DISCOVERY OF THE MOTION OF THE CHYLE, AND CONSEQUENT SPECULATIONS.

 452  453  454

Sect. 1. The Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle  452

Sect. 2. The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses of Digestion  453

CHAPTER IV.  EXAMINATION OF THE PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS, AND CONSEQUENT SPECULATIONS.

 455  456  457  458  459  460

Sect. 1. The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals  455

Sect. 2. " " in Vegetables 457
Sect. 3. The Consequent Speculations. -- Hypotheses of Generation  459

CHAPTER V.-EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, AND CONSEQUENT SPECULATIONS.

 461  462  463  464  465  466  467

Sect. 1. The Examination of the Nervous System  461

Sect. 2. The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses respecting Life, Sensation, and Volition  464

CHAPTER VI.  INTRODUCTION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPED AND METAMORPHOSED SYMMETRY.

 468  469  470  471  472  473  474

Sect. 1. Vegetable Morphology. -- Göthe. De Candolle  468

Sect. 2. Application of Vegetable Morphology  474

CHAPTER VII.  PROGRESS OF ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY.

 475  476  477  478  479  480  481

Sect. 1. Rise of Comparative Anatomy  475

Sect. 2. Distinction of the General Types of the Forms of Animals. -- Cuvier  478
Sect. 3. Attempts to establish the Identity of the Types of Animal Forms. 480

CHAPTER VIII.  THE DOCTRINE OF FINAL CAUSES IN PHYSIOLOGY.

 482  483  484  485  486  487  488  489  490  491  492  493  494  495  496  497  498

Sect. 1. Assertion of the Principle of Unity of Plan  482

Sect. 2. Estimate of the Doctrine of Unity of Plan  487
Sect. 3. Establishment and Application of the Principle of the Conditions of Existence of Animals. -- Cuvier  492




THE PALAEONOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

BOOK XVIII.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION  499  
499  500  501  502  503  504

DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.  PRELUDE TO SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

 505  506  507  508  509  510

Sect. 1. Ancient Notices of Geological Facts  505

Sect. 2. Early Descriptions and Collections of Fossils  506
Sect. 3. First Construction of Geological Maps  509

CHAPTER II.  FORMATION OF SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

 511  512  513  514  515  516  517  518  519  520  521  522

Sect. 1. Discovery of the Order and Stratification of the Materials of the Earth  511

Sect. 2. Systematic Form given to Descriptive Geology. -- Werner 513
Sect. 3. Application of Organic Remains as a Geological Character. -- Smith 515
Sect. 4. Advances in Palaeontology. -- Cuvier  517
Sect. 5. Intellectual Characters of the Founders of Systematic Descriptive Geology  520

[517] So long as the organic fossils which were found in the strata of the earth were the remains of marine animals, it was very difficult for geoloists to be assured that the animals were such as did not exist in any part or clime of the existing ocean. But when large land and river animals were discovered, different from any known species, the persuasion that they were of extinct races was forced upon the naturalist. Yet this opinion was not taken up slightly, nor acquiesced in without many struggles.

Bones supposed to belong to fossil elephants, were some of the first with regard to which this conclusion was established. Such remains occur in vast numbers in the soil and gravel of almost every part of the world; especially in Siberia, where they are called the bones of the mammoth.... In 1796, Cuvier ... stated the results of his researches. "With regard to what have been called the fossil remains of elephants, from Tentzelius to Pallas, I believe that I am in the condition to prove, that they belong to animals which were very clearly different in species from our existing elephants, although they resembled them sufficiently to be considered as belonging to the same genera."

[518] We have here, then, the starting-point of those researches concerning extinct animals... Cuvier could hardly have anticipated the vast storehouse of materials which lay under his feet, ready to supply him occupation of the most intense interest.


CHAPTER III.  SEQUEL TO THE FORMATION OF SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.

 523  524  525  526  527  528  529  530  531  532  533  534  535  536

Sect. 1. Reception and Diffusion of Systematic Geology  523

Sect. 2. Application of Systematic Geology. -- Geological Surveys and Maps. 526
Sect. 3. Geological Nomenclature  527
Sect. 4. Geological Synonymy, or Determination of Geological Equivalents  531

[525] Among the events belonging to the diffusion of sound geological views in this country, we may notice the publiction of a little volume entitled The Geology of England and Wales, by Mr. Conybeare and Mr. Phillips, in 1821; an event far more important than, from the modest form and character of the work, it might at first sight appear. By describing in detail the geological structure and circumstances of England (at least as far downward as the coal), it enabled a very wide class of readers to understand and verify the classifications which geology had then very recently established.

[529] Those descriptive names only have been really useful in geology which had been used withoug any scrupulous regard to the appropriateness of the description. The Green Sand may be white, brown, or red; the Mountain Limestone may occur only in valleys; the Oolite may have no roe-like structure; and yet these may be excellent geological names, if they be applied to formations geologically identical with those which the phrases originally designated. The signification may assist the memory, but must not be allowed to subjugate the faculty of natural classification.

[537] The extension of geological surveys, the construction of geological maps, and the determination of geological equivalents... have been carried on ... with enlarged activity, range and means. It is estimated that one-third of the land of each hemisphere has been geologically explored; and that thus Descriptive Geology has now been prosecuted so far, that it is not likely that even the extensioin of it to the whole globe would give any material novelty of aspect.

CHAPTER IV.  ATTEMPTS TO DISCOVER GENERAL LAWS IN GEOLOGY.

 537  538  539  540  541

Sect 1. General Geological Phenomena  537

Sect. 2. Transition to Geological Dynamics  541

[540] In proceeding downwards through the series of formations ... one class of organic forms after another is found to disappear. In the Tertiary Period we find all the classes of the present world: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Crustaceans, Mollusks, Zoophytes. In the Secondary Period, from the Chalk down to the New Red Sandstone, Mammals are not found, with the minute exception of the marsupial amphitherium and phascoloterium in the stonesfield slate. In the Carboniferous and Devonian period we have no large reptiles, with, again, a minute amount of exception. In the lower part of the silurian rocks, Fishes vanish, and we have no animal forms but Mollusks, crustaceans and Zoophytes.

[541] Geologists differ as to the question whether these changes in the inhabitants of the globe were made by determinate steps or by insensible gradations. M. Agassiz has been led to the convidtion that the organized population of the globe was renewed in the interval of each principal member of its formations. Mr. Lyelll, on the other hand, conceives that the change in the collection of organized beings was gradual.

GEOLOGICAL DYNAMICS.

CHAPTER V.  INORGANIC GEOLOGICAL DYNAMICS.

 542  543  544  545  546  547  548  549  550  551  552  553  554  555  556  557  558  559  560

Sect. 1. Necessity and Object of a Science of Geological Dynamics  542

Sect. 2. Aqueous Causes of Change  545
Sect. 3. Igneous Causes of Change. -- Motions of the Earth's Surface  549
Sect. 4. The Doctrine of Central Heat  554
Sect. 5. Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces  556
Sect. 6. Theories of Changes of Climate  559

[545] It was Mr. Lyell's Principles of Geology .. which disclosed the full effect of [natural changes] on geology... This work may be looked upon as the beginning of Geological Dynamics.

[552] Connected with the secular rise and fall of large portions of the earth's surface, another agency which plays an important part in Geological dynamics has been the subject of some bold yet singularly persuasive speculations by Mr. Darwin. I speak of the formation of Coral, and Coral Reefs. He says that the coral-building animal works only at small and definite distances below the surface. How then are we to account for the vast number of coral islands, rings, and reefs, which are scattered over the Pacific and Indian Oceans! ... Mr. Darwin replies, that if we suppose the land to subside slowly beneath the sea, and at the same time suppose the coralline zoophytes to go on building, so that their structure constantly rises near to the surface of the water, we shall have the facts explained. A submerged island will produce a ring; a long coast, a barrier reef; and so on. Mr. Darwin also notes other phenomena, as elevated beds of coral, which, occurring in other places, indicate a recent rising of the land; and on such grounds as these he divides the surface of those parts of the ocean into regions of elevation and depression.

[554] The doctrine of a central heat has usually been combined with the supposition of a central igneous fluidity; for the heat in the neighborhood of the center must be very intense... But to this central fluidity it has been objected that such a fluid must be in constant circulation by the cooling of its interior....

CHAPTER VI.  PROGRESS OF THE GEOLOGICAL DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZED BEINGS.

 561  562  563  564  565  566  567  568  569  570  571  572  573  574  575  576  577  578

Sect. 1. Objects of this Science  561

Sect. 2. Geography of Plants and Animals  562
Sect. 8. Questions of the Transmutation of Species  563
Sect. 4. Hypothesis of Progressive Tendencies 565
Sect. 5. Question of Creation as related to Science  568
Sect. 6. The Hypothesis of the Regular Creation and Extinction of Species. 573
1. Creation of Species  573
2. Extinction of Species  576
Sect. 7. The Imbedding of Organic Remains  577

[561] The species of plants and animals which are found embedded in the strata of the earth, are not only different from those which now live in the same regions, but, for the most part, different from any now existing on the face of the earth. The remains which we discover imply a past state of things different from that which now prevails; they imply also that the whole organic creation has been renewed, and that this renewal has taken place several times. Such extraordinary general facts have naturally put in activity very bold speculations.

[563] We here obviously place before us, as a subject of research, the Creation of Living Things; -- a subject shrouded in mystery, and not to be approached without reverence. ... We may ask: -- how we are to recognize the species which were originally created distinct? -- whether the population of the earth at one geological epoch could pass to the form which it has at a succeeding period, by the agency of natural causes alone? -- and if not, what other account we can give of the succession which we find to have taken place?

The most remarkable point in the attempts to answer these and the like questions, is the controversy between the advocates and the opponents of the doctrine of the transmutation of species. This question is, even from its mere physiological import, one of great interest.

We see that animals and plants may, by the influence of breeding, and of external agents operating upon their constitution, be greatly modified, so as to give rise to varieties and races different from what before existed. How different, for instance, is one kind and breed of dog from another! The question, then, is, whether organized beings can, by the mere working of natural causes, pass from the type of one species to that of another?

[564] The study of Geology opens to us the spectacle of many groups of species which have, in the course of the earth's history, succeeded each other at vast intervals of time... either we must accept the doctrine of the transmutaion of species, and must suppose that the organized species of one geological epoch were transmuted into those of another by some long-continued agency of natural causes; or else, we must believe in many successive acts of creation and extinction of species, out of the common course of nature; acts which, therefore, we may properly call miraculous.

[569] It is, I think, no irrational opinion, even on the grounds of philosophical analogy alone, that in all those sciences which look back and seek a beginning of things, we may be unable to arrive at a consistent and definite belief, without having recourse to other grounds of truth, as well as to historical research and scientific reasoning. When our thoughts would apprehend steadily the creation of things, we find that we are obliged to summon up other ideas than those which regulate the pursuit of scientific truths; -- to call in other powers than thoseto which we refer natural events.

[570] Although it may not be possible to arrive at a right conviction respecting the origin of the world, without having recourse to other than physical considerations, and to other than geological evidence; yet extraneous considerations, and extraneous evidence, respecting the nature of the beginning of things, must never be allowed to influence our physics or our geology.

[572] One of the advantages of the study of the history and nature of science in which we are now engaged is, that it warns us of the hopless and presumptuous character of such attempts to understand the government of the world by the aid of science, without throwing any discredit upon the reality of our knowledge; -- that while it shows how solid and certain each science is, so long as it refers its own facts to its own ideas, it confines each science within its own limits, and condemns it as empty and helpless, when it pronounces upon those subjects which are extraneous to it. The error of persons who should seek a geological narrative in theological records, would be rather in the search itself than in their interpretation of what they might find; and in like manner the error of those who would conclude against a supernatural beginning, or a providential direction of the world, upon geological or physiological reasonings, would be, that they had expected those sciences alone to place the origin or the government of the world in its proper light.

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER, VII.  PR0GRESS OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

 579  580  581  582  583  584  585

Sect. 1. Object and Distinctions of Physical Geology  579

Sect. 2. Of Fanciful Geological Opinions 580
Sect. 3. Of Premature Geological Theories  584

CHAPTER VIII.  THE TWO ANTAGONIST DOCTRINES OF GEOLOGY.

 586  587  588  589  590  591  592  593  594  595  596  597  598

Sect. 1. Of the Doctrine of Geological Catastrophes  586

Sect. 2.  "  " Uniformity  588




ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION.

BOOK VIII. -- ACOUSTICS.

SOUND.

The Velocity of Sound in Water  599   599  600

BOOK IX. -- OPTICS.

 601  602  603  604  605

Photography  601
Fluorescence  601

UNDULATORY THEORY.

Direction of the Transverse Vibrations in Polarization  603
Final Disproof of the Emission Theory  604

BOOK X. -- THERMOTICS. -- ATMOLOGY.

 606  607  608  609

THE RELATION OF VAPOR AND AIR.

Force of Steam  606
Temperature of the Atmosphere  607

THEORIES OF HEAT.

The Dynamical Theory of Heat  608

BOOK XI. -- ELECTRICITY

 610  611  612

General Remarks  610
Dr. Faraday's Views of Statical Electrical Induction  611

BOOK XII. -- MAGNETISM

 613  614  615  616  617  618  619

Recent Progress ofTerrestrial Magnetism  613
Correction of Ships' Compasses  616


BOOK XIII. -- VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

 620  621  622  623  624

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.
 
Diamagnetic Polarity  620
Magneto-optic Effects and Magnecrystallic Polarity  621
Magneto-electric Machines  623
Applications of Electrodynamic Discoveries  623

BOOK XIV. -- CHEMISTRY

 625  626

THE ELECTRO-CHEMICAL THEORY.

The Number of Elementary Substances  625

BOOK XV. -- MINERALOGY.

 627  628  629  630

Crystallography  627
Optical Properties of Minerals  629
Classification of Minerals  630

BOOK XVI. -- CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES.

 631  632  633  634  635

Recent Views of Botany  631
"  "   Zoology  634

BOOK XVII. -- PHYSIOLOGICAL AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

 636  637  638  639  640  641  642  643  644  645

Vegetable Morphology 636
Animal Morphology  638
Final Causes  642

BOOK XVIII.

 646  647  648

Geology  646