A HISTORY

OF

EUROPEAN THOUGHT

IN THE

NINETEENTH CENTURY


BY

JOHN THEODORE MERZ



In Four Volumes

1907-1914


VOLUME III



William Blackwood and Sons
Edinburgh and London.

This electronic edition prepared by Dr. David C. Bossard
from original documents in his personal library.


August, 2006.

Copyright © 2006 by David C. Bossard.



CONTENTS.

PREFACE  v  vi

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

 003  004  005  006  007  008  009  010  011  012  013  014  015  016  017  018  019  020  021  022  023  024  025  026  027  028  029  030  031  032  033  034  035  036  037  038  039  040  041  042  043  044  045  046  047  048  049  050  051  052  053  054  055  056  057  058  059  060  061  062  063  064  065  066  067  068  069  070  071  072  073  074  075  076  077  078  079  080  081  082  083  084  085  086  087  088  089  090

Common-sense and speculation, 3; Language the instrument of commonsense, 3; New terms in philosophy, 4; Creative and critical eras, 6; Contrast between philosophical and scientific thought, 8; Seen especially in language, 10; The precept of science and that of philosophy, 12; External object common to all; internal, peculiar to the observing subject, 13; Outer world in space; inner world in time, 13; Distinction, however, not hard and fast, 15; Either language or bodily sensation can furnish a point of union, 15; Psycho-physical view of nature, 17; Kantian Idealism the antithesis to this, 18; Both methods overreach their limit, 19; Their permanent value, 19; Transition to the social point of view, 20; A characteristic tendency of recent thought, 21; Biology and the history of origins, 22; Reality added by thought to natural things, 24; Twofold aspect of the Real first recognised by Plato, 25; Medieval philosophy and the modern break with it, 27; Community between Kant and Plato, 28; Evolution and the power of words, 30; The social point of view in history, 31; Application to the history of thought, 33; Differences as well as uniting ideas not to be neglected, 34; New point of view required, 34; Contrast to be dealt with, 34; Philosophical contrasted with scientific method, 85; Histories of philosophy, 37; Kuno Fischer, 39; National and international work in science and philosophy, 41 ; Auguste Comte, 43; English empiricism, 43; Social point of view in France and England, 43; Absence of the same in Germany, 44; Psychological, metaphysical, and positive interests, 45; A new character of philosophical thought in the century, 47; The term Criticism as used by Kant, 48; Criticism and history, 49; Growth and diffusion of the critical spirit, 50; Hegel and Spencer, 51; Intermediate position of philosophy between science and religion, 52; Monistic doctrines, 52,; Attempts at reconciliation of knowledge and belief, 54; Dualism in philosophic systems, 55; Plan of this history, 56; Character and aims of philosophical thought, 59; No consensus as to philosophical methods, 60; Philosophy is interested, science disinterested, 62; Philosophers as educators and reformers, 64; Problems of science are many, problem of philosophy is one, 65; Renunciation in recent philosophy, 66; Reversion to common-sense, 68 ; "Scientific Philosophy," 69 ; Direction of Herbart and Lotze, 71; E. Zeller, 71 ; Wilhelm Wundt, 72 ; Influence of Schopenhauer, 74; Materialism of the "Forties," 76; Schopenhauer's pessimism an accident, 77; Realism of Nietzsche, 78; Comte's sociology, 80; Temporary decline of philosophic interest, 81; Hints of its revival, 82; "Voluntarism," 83; Relation of recent philosophy to religion, 87.

[077] The philosphy of Schopenhauer came to many younger minds as a kind of revelation. It was sufficiently speculative to satisfy the idealistic craving; it summed up its teaching in an intelligible formula; it supported its doctrines by a great wealth of artistic insight; and it contrasted favourably with the writings of Hegel by the elegance and lucidity of its literary style. Add to this, that it was highly spiced by brilliant and unsparing invective against the philosophers who had so long, by unfilfilled promises, led the nation astray; it was also the first attempt in Germany to drop, in the discussion of the highest problems, the professorial and academic tone, which to many practically minded people had assumed too much self-assurance and the pride of infallibility. Unfortunately the theoretical principles of Schopenhauer's philosophy were, in their practical application to ethical problems, joined to a pessimistic view of the world and life. ...It was opposed to the spirit of Plato, which likewise influenced Schopenhauer, and it stands in no logical connection with his abstract principles. Allied as it was to that sensation of world-sickness which ran through a large portion of Continental literature, it appealed to many youthful and ardent spirits who found the ideals of a former generation destroyed and its hopes abandoned.

[085] There is no mistaking the signs of the times; the tide is running away from abstract dogmas and metaphysical speculation. Both these have been tried and found wanting, so far as the great practical problems are concerned. Theology has failed to evangelise the masses, and philosophy to enlighten them. For a time all hopes were concentrated upon exact science, but this also has shown itself powerless to deal with fundamental questions, or to approach the ground and origin of things. Truth, in the higher sense of the word, as an expression of the truly Real, is no longer an object of scientific research. Exact science does not profess to deal with essences ad existences, but only with what is apparent.


CHAPTER II.

ON THE GROWTH AND DIFFUSION OF THE CRITICAL SPIRIT.

 091  092  093  094  095  096  097  098  099  100  101  102  103  104  105  106  107  108  109  110  111  112  113  114  115  116  117  118  119  120  121  122  123  124  125  126  127  128  129  130  131  132  133  134  135  136  137  138  139  140  141  142  143  144  145  146  147  148  149  150  151  152  153  154  155  156  157  158  159  160  161  162  163  164  165  166  167  168  169  170  171  172  173  174  175  176  177  178  179  180  181  182  183  184  185  186  187  188  189  190  191


Reversal of the position of science and philosophy, 91; Causes of the change, 93; Anarchy of recent philosophy, 93 ; Critical spirit, 95; Narrower and wider sense of criticism, 96; Germany the home of criticism in the wider sense, 98 ; Attempts to apply exact methods to philosophy, 100; Reason of their failure, 101; Contrast between unities to which phenomena of nature and inner life are referred, 103; Loss of synoptic view in recent philosophy, 104 ; Sapping effect of critical spirit, 105; How has science escaped 106; The escape has not been complete, 106; Reasons why science has not succumbed, 107; Peculiar strength in their practical utility, 109; Besides, man cannot judge nature, 109; Criticism a reflection of the mind on itself, 110; Three critical periods, 110; From the last we have not yet emerged, 111; its methodical character, 112; Obstructions to it, 113; Winckelmann's reform of art by criticism, 114l; Ideal of humanity: its phases, 115 ; Lessing's revival of Spinoza, 118 Kant and Spinoza the poles of German thought, 119; Spinoza and German idealism, 121 ; Spinoza, Lessiug, Kant, and the Higher Criticism, 123; Representative higher critics, 127; Göttingen and the critical spirit, 127; Criticism an instrument of education, 130 ; Difference of philosophical and historical criticism, 131 ; Two modes of treatment. in classical philology, 134 ; Criticism as practised by Hermann and Ritschl, 137; Encyclopaedic aims of F. A. Wolf, 138 ; Sprach-philologen and Sach-philologen, 139; Ritschl and Liebig compared, 145; Extension of methods from classical to other branches of philology, 146; Bopp and Grimm, 147; Extension to historical studies, 148; Broader view of history since Niebuhr, 150; Leopold von Ranke, 151; Ernst Curtius, 152; Theod. Mommsen, 156; Political temper in Mommsen, 158; Liberation of historical criticism from religious influence, 159; First application of criticism to religion by Fichte and Kant, 161; Schieiermacher's Religious Discourses, 162; Criticism of religious origins, 163; Eichhorn as successor of Astruc, 164; Influence of Hegel, 166; David F. Strauss, 166; F. C. Baur, 170; Philosophical criticism: Feuerbach, 174; Humanistic interpretation of Hegel, 174; Another interpretation, 174; Materialistic controversy, 176; Renunciation of premature solutions: Lotze, 178; Return from metaphysics to psychology: Herbart, 179; Fechner's psycho-physics, 179; Neo-Kantism: F. A. Lange, 179; Influence of Darwin and Riemann, 180; Unsettlement due to criticism, 182; Philosophical thought outside Germany, 183 ; French and English philosophy little known in Germany, 183; French and English philosophy uncritical in the German sense, 184; The philosophy of Renouvier, 185 ; Recent critical tendency in England, 186; Cousin's Eclecticism and philosophy of Common-sense, 186; Philosophy becoming international, 187; Criticism the common meeting-ground, 188.

CHAPTER III.

OF THE SOUL.

 192  193  194  195  196  197  198  199  200  201  202  203  204  205  206  207  208  209  210  211212  213  214  215  216  217  218  219  220  221  222  223  224  225  226  227  228  229  230  231232  233  234  235  236  237  238  239  240  241  242  243  244  245  246  247  248  249  250  251252  253  254  255  256  257  258  259  260  261  262  263  264  265  266  267  268  269  270  271272  273  274  275  276  277  278  279  280  281  282  283  284  285  286  287  288  289  290  291292  293
         

Philosophical and scientific thought again contrasted, 192; Aim at unification, 193; General conceptions ancient and modern, 194; Words marking leading philosophical problems, 195; The problem of the Soul or Psychology, 196; The 'Seelenfrage,' 197 ; Problems centering in this, 200; Empirical and rational psychology, 200; At the beginning of the century rational psychology mainly studied in Germany, 202; Empirical psychology chiefly British, 202; French physiological psychology, 203; Herbart, 204; Conceptions introduced by Herbart, 207; Exact method, 208; Beneke, 208; British introspective psychology, 209; Attempt to base psychology on elementary scientific principles, 211 ; Errors of this procedure, 212 ; Association psychology, 215 ; James Mill's mental chemistry, 218; Alex. Bain, 218; Want of system in British philosophy, 219; University teaching in Scotland, 221; Philosophy of commonsense, 24 ; British ideas carried over to France, 227; Reaction and development, 230; De Tracy and the idea of activity, 231; Maine de Biran, 232; Royer Collard and Cousin, 235; Influence of Kant and of German idealism, 236; Kant and psychology, 237; Epistemological development in Germany, 243; Kant's psychological programme, 248; The way out of individualism, 248; General causes of this movement, 250; Disappearance of psychology in the older sense, 252; Individual self merged into general self, 255 ; Creation of ideals, 256; The educational movement, 256; The political movement, 257 ; Return to empirical psychology, 258; J, F. Fries, 258; Influence of physiology, 259; Feuerbach on Hegel, 260; Die Seelenfrage, 261; International contact, 262; Lotze, 264; Approaches philosophy from the side of medicine, 265; Connection with the classical period, 265; His psychology, 266; His circumspection, 267; Various lines in recent psychology, 268; Ribot, 269; Morbid psychology, 272; 'Mind' and Croom Robertson, 275; James Ward, 277 ; Avenarius, 282; Hartmann, Spencer, and Fouillée, 285; Spencer's evolutional psychology, 286; Idealistic antecedents of Hartmann and Fouillée, 286; The Unconscious in psychology, 287; Change in vocabulary, 289; Stress laid on activity and feeling, 290; Presentation-continuum, 291; Anthropology, 291; Discontinuity -- Renouvier, 291.

CHAPTER IV.

OF KNOWLEDGE.

 294  295  296  297  298  299  300  301  302  303  304  305  306  307  308  309  310  311  312  313314  315  316  317  318  319  320  321  322  323  324  325  326  327  328  329  330  331  332  333334  335  336  337  338  339  340  341  342  343  344  345  346  347  348  349  350  351  352  353354  355  356  357  358  359  360  361  362  363  364  365  366  367  368  369  370  371  372  373374  375  376  377  378  379  380  381  382  383  384  385  386  387  388  389  390  391  392  393394  395  396  397  398  399  400  401  402  403  404  405  406  407  408  409  410  411  412  413414  415  416  417  418  419  420
           

Early appearance of the problem of knowledge, 294; Re-emergence characteristic of nineteenth century, 294 ; Fichte's Wissenschaftslehre, 295; Erkenntnisstheorie, 296; Renouvier's Neocriticism, 296; Agnosticism and Pragmatism, 297; Preparation in login and psychology, 298; Influence of current literature and science, 299; Effect of the French Revolution, 300; Later dominance of exact science, 800; J. S. Mill, 301; Influence of social questions, 302; Influence of mathematics in France, 302; Reaction in British thought, 304; Dispersive character of earlier British thought, 309; Its want of systematic unity, 311; Beginning of search for a creed, 312; The first episode ends in Agnosticism, 315 Continental efforts to transcend dualism, 316; Two lines of development, 317; Union of these, 317 ; Continental thought began with scepticism, 320; Descartes' constructive effort, 321 ; Mathematical methods, 322; Spiuoza and Leibniz, 324; Diverging directions after Leibniz, 330; Aim at unity in Continental thought, 331; Spinoza and Leibniz contrasted, 331; Leibniz and Bayle, 332; Systematisation of Leibniz's ideas, 335; New way opened by Kant, 336; Relation to Locke, Hume, and Leibniz, 339; Locke and Kant, 340; Kaut,'s philosophy a central point, 344; Relativity of Knowledge, 344; The sensible and the intelligible, 345; The regulative ideas, 346; Acceptance of extant body of scientific knowledge, 348; And of traditional psychology, 349; Apparent want of unity, 349; Criticism predominant, 350; Reinhold, 351 ; Criticism superseded by construction, 355; Fichte, 357; Fichte representative of a new generation, 363; Schelling, 366; Want of criticism and exactness, 367; Hegel aims at supplying the want, 371; J. S. Mill's Logic, 374; Ground common to Mill and Kant, 377; Sir W. Hamilton, 379; A. Comte, 381; Revival and deepening of the historical sciences, 386; Epistemology and exact sciences, 390; Greater precision, 391; Conception of energy, 392; Darwin and development, 394; Cause and effect defined, 397; Supersession of astronomical view, 400; Plenum substituted, 400; Limitation of scientific knowledge, 403; Dualism in the problem of knowledge, 406 ; Recognised by Lotze, 406; His doctrine of Values, 408; Hegel's new conception of Logic, 410; Reaction against this, 411; Lotze and English Hegelianism, 412; Bradley and Bosanquet, 414; Lotze and Spencer, 415; The 'Unknowable,' 416; Renouvier on Discontinuity and Personality, 417; Schopenhauer's Voluntarism, 418; Overthrow of extreme Intellectualism, 419.

CHAPTER V.

OF REALITY.

 421  422  423  424  425  426  427  428  429  430  431  432  433  434  435  436  437  438  439  440441  442  443  444  445  446  447  448  449  450  451  452  453  454  455  456  457  458  459  460461  462  463  464  465  466  467  468  469  470  471  472  473  474  475  476  477  478  479  480481  482  483  484  485  486  487  488  489  490  491  492  493  494  495  496  497  498  499  500501  502  503  504  505  506  507  508  509  510  511  512  513  514  515  516  517  518  519  520521  522  523  524  525  526  527  528  529  530  531  532  533  534  535  536  537  538  539  540541  542  543
           

Epistemology and systems of philosophy, 421 ; Some systems start with theories of Reality, 423 ; Interests of academic teaching and of practical life, 424; Discredit of Metaphysics, 428; Revival of Metaphysics, 430; Necessity of the word, 431 ; The problem of Reality, 432; Modern problem of Reality centres in Kant, 435; The "Thing in itself," 437; His objection to Idealism, 439 ; His "Categorical Imperative," 441 ; Importance of his terminology, 441; Fichte on Kant's terms for Reality, 442; Fichte and Schelling, 445 ; "Intellectual Intuition," 445; Fichte's practical aims, 447 ; "Self-realisation," 448 ; Fiehte's Absolute is a process, 450; Schelling, 453: His central position in German Idealism, 453; Practical and poetical interests, 456; Rehabilitation of Nature, 458; Formulae of "polarity," 461 ; Hegel, 464; Philosophy of the Absolute Spirit, 466 ; Logical process identified with world-process, 469; Reason of Hegel's success, 471 ; Compared with Bacon, 476; Meaning of the identification of the Rational and the Real, 478; Opposition to the monistic tendency, 479; Herbart, 481; Schopenhauer, 482; The term "positive," 487 ; Schelling's positive philosophy, 488 ; His religious turn, 489; New eclectic spirit, 491 ; Lotze, 491 ; Defect in historical sense, 494 ; Doctrine of Values, 495; Ethics the root of Metaphysics, 4.98 ; Detailed interest in phenomena, 501 ; At the summit a religious conception, 503; Theory of knowledge and belief, 505; The problem of Reality since Lotze, 506; The idea of Personality, 507; The problem of Evil, 508; Ethical problems, 509; Ethical spirit of British philosophy, 510; Return of British thinkers to Metaphysics, 510; Spencer's "Unknowable," 511; Wundt, 513 ; Lotze's, Spencer's, and Wundt's phenomenalism contrasted, 516; Fechner and E. von Hartmann, 518; Return to Ontology in England and France, 523; The two movements of search in England: Realistic and Idealistic, 527; Popular influences: the new monthly Reviews, 530; Caird, Wallace, and Green, 532; Bradley's 'Appearance and Reality,' 533; Bradley and Lotze, 534; Bradley's opposition to both atomistic and transcendental view of Reality, 536 ; His Monism or Absolutism, 540; Phenomenalists and Ontologists, 542.

CHAPTER VI.

OF NATURE.

 544  545  546  547  548  549  550  551  552  553  554  555  556  557  558  559  560  561  562  563564  565  566  567  568  569  570  571  572  573  574  575  576  577  578  579  580  581  582  583584  585  586  587  588  589  590  591  592  593  594  595  596  597  598  599  600  601  602  603604  605  606  607  608  609  610  611  612  613  614  615  616  617  618  619  620  621  622  623624  625  626
      

Nature: a metaphysical problem, 544; Superseded by empirical studies, 545 ; Changes in the thoughts of the age, 546; The exact study of Nature, 547 ; Naturalism of English poetry and art, 547; Philosophy of Nature, 547; Importance of this last, 549; Laplace, 550; Absence of organic and subjective factors, 552; Biological appeal of Schelling, 553 ; An omitted idea: Malthus, 554; Afterwards taken up by Darwin, 554; Statical view of French science, 555; Insufficiency of this, 555 ; Vague ideas of development kept back by mathematical spirit, 558 ; A premature rationale in materialism, 560; Büchner, 561; Inadequacy, yet popularity, of "Matter" and "Force," 565; Inexactness of the popular term Force, 566; Lotze's formula regarding mechanism, 570; Success and failure of Materialism, 570; Change in scientific conceptions, 573; New criticism of fundamental notions, 575 ; J. S. Mill, 575 ; Thomson and Tait, Maxwell, 576; Kirchhoff, 578; Wundt and Mach, 578 ; Clifford and K. Pearson, 579; Economy of Thought: Mach and Avenarius, 579; Want of philosophical interest attaching to mechanical theories, 533; Schopenhauer's philosophical view of Nature, 536; Opposed to Paulogism and Mechanicism, 587 ; Schopenhauer an idealist and romantic, 589 ; As also Von Hartmann, 590; The philosophy of the "Unconscious," 590; The ideal view displaced by the naturalistic, 593 ; Wundt on Actuality, 595; Rise of the problem of Discontinuity, 597; Du Bois Reymond, 597; Haeckel's Monism, 600; Loose use by naturalists of physical concepts, 603; Mach on the limitation of mechanical physics, 604 ; Effects of modern analysis on view of nature as a whole, 606; Artistic view of nature, 610; Goethe as representative of the synoptic view, 611 ; This view indispensable in science also, 613; Double use of the word positive, 614; Fechner and Lotze, 615; Lotze's distinction between things, forms, and values, 615; New problems, 617; The problems of the Contingent aud the Discontinuous outstanding, 619; Lachelier and Renouvier, 620; Transition to aesthetic and ethical aspects, 625.

INDEX  i  ii  iii  iv  v  vi  vii  viii  ix  x  xi  xii  xiii  xiv  xv  xvi  xvii  xviii  xix  xx